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BY pragyansharma polavarapu  PART ONE     A SIMPLE VIEW OF A  SOFTWARE PROGRAM Before coming of WINDOWS software, the  commands to CPU were always given through software instructions which were like precise coded commands of a military office. After coming of WINDOWS programming environment many  software actions  are performed   “graphically” i.e. by clicking  small picture buttons( icons  ) or  flag like vertical menu lists or by using the conversational style in dialogue boxes etc. While using dialogue boxes , no sooner we give an answer to a question ,another question pops up. After two or three such questions the computer is satisfied with our answer.This is really interactive programming of high quality.  The  “icons”( little  half centimeter size pictures in square boxes ) appear  in   tool bars/task bars at top and bottom of WINDOW.  ...

By    pragyansharma polavarapu    (A) BEGINNING  AT THE VERY BEGINNING    (1) Imagine a sand grain of one millimeter cube. Scientists say that can contain   10 20 atoms .  Please realize that 10 20 = (one million) x (one  million) x (one  million) x 100 ! So  big is 10 20 and so small are the  atoms . There are only 92 varieties in   atoms in the universe.  Hydrogen atom is the smallest  atom.  (2) To understand sizes of atoms the unit called NANOMETER is used. It is one billionth part of a millimeter. The diameter of Hydrogen atom is about 0.1 nanometer. Other atoms have alo sizes between 0.1 and 0.5 nanometers. (3) Every atom has a very heavy central part called nucleus which is like a positive rock fort containing positive particles called protons and also a few neutral particles called neutrons. The negative particles the “electrons” --( smallest purest negative electric partic...

  By    pragyansharma polavarapu  INTRODUCTION (1) The MINI  computers not only brought down the size of computer (to size of a table top radio) but various new technologies were also introduced making the computer all powerful.  The  length of “computer word”(the “bytes” conmprising a string of 0s and 1s ) was standardized to  8/16/32 bit size by  the IEEE. Many  sophisticated computer languages BASIC/FORTRAN/COBOL  etc  with a mathematical base  were invented. Use of computer naturally  extended to many  fields . (2) Mini  in the client-server environment was useful for bank counter supervision ,college teaching with live question-answer sessions between the professor and student ,ticket booking counters  , government work etc. Client server technology had another big use in industries especially industries dealing with hazardous chemicals or industries where live watching minute by minute...

  By    pragyansharma polavarapu    (A)INTRODUCTION (1)The  MINI computers of 1960s and 1970s were  really  very small  compared to the old giant electronic calculating machines like ENIAC of 1940s . The old electronic  calculator-computer machines like the respected ENIAC   were of the size of  big halls in houses. Wonder of wonders,the MINIs  of 1960 and 1970s became reduced to the  size of  just  table-top band radios! The transformation was made possible solely after the discovery of  tiny sand particle-sized  “TRANSISTOR” (silicon triode) and its use  in the MINIs .  Hundreds or even thousands  of transistor  triodes were used in creation of  hundreds of logic circuits in registers and processors inside the computer. (2)The transistor was invented in 1947 after a series of researches on tiny “crystal diodes” made from semiconductor materials like Germanium and S...

 By    pragyansharma polavarapu    AN INTRODUCTION (1) Earlier to 1950s computers were only  giant size mathematical calculators . A  single machine occupied a big  hall with its 10-15 cabinets of electrical /electronic equipment and connecting wires. However  they could do a million calculations like 2+3 in just a millionth of second! They had awe inspiring calculating power and were mysterious machines. After discovery of sand-grain sized transistor triodes there was a sea change in computer production technology. The tiny sturdy high performance transistors replaced the  15,000 big electric bulb sized glass diodes in computer’s logic circuits ! Computers became small  like radio sets (old tube radios of 60 years back) requiring only a small office table in a small room.  During the period of about three  decades, roughly  1960s to 1980s ,  small computers(electronic calculating machines...