INTRODUCTION
The ancient Roman emperors made the new religion of love and sacrifice of Lord Jesus Christ the state religion of the empire in western Europe in fourth century AD. Christianity brought cultural uniformity in entire Roman Empire and it was as if a new light entered the lives of European people. With the direct support of the Roman emperor, the various kings and nobles magnificent churches , cathedrals and monasteries were built all over Europe. The church of the Roman Empire became the Roman Catholic church and it administered the entire church matters and spiritual matters in all countries of Europe. (This was the position before the Protestant Movement of 16th century). Many universities were opened teaching both religion and spirituality and subjects like astronomy, mathematics, geometry, state craft etc. After printing press was invented in 1440 the Holy Bible was translated into all European languages including English . In course of centuries as the Empire became vast and unmanageable it had to be split for adminstrative convenience into West Roman Empire and Eastern Byzantine Empire. Latin was the language of Western Empire and and Greek was the language of the Eastern Empire. In course of centuries , to add to the difficulties of the West Roman Empire , powerful German warlords with their huge war bands attacked during 3rd to 5th centuries AD. Countries like France, Spain, Portugal developed into powerful independent kingdoms . The western empire disintegrated in Fifth century AD(in 476 AD).
The Eastern Empire flourished for another 1000 years upto 1453. Greek mythologies and works of art, sculpture and architecture, works of philosophy and science were created, nurtured and preserved in the Eastern Empire. For a few centuries the people of western Europe remained unaware of the ancient cultural and literary treasures preserved in the Byzantine empire . Only after the great Renaissance movement swept all Europe in the middle ages the art and cultural treasures of ancient Greeks preserved in the Byzantine empire became widely known in Europe . Renaissance (i.e. rediscovery of old art treasures) resulted in sudden flowering of high quality new literature in most European languages . In many cases it was inspired by the ancient Greek literary models. England had its own literary explosion seen in writing of Chaucer, Spencer, Shakespeare, John Milton and others. Later the famous Romantic Movement in literature in England resulted in great poetic works in simple modern English full of realism, discovery of nature’s mystic power, sensitive studies of lives of simple common folk etc. Such was the influence of ancient Greek literature , philosophy and art in England and all over Europe.
Earlier,the powerful Roman Empire (that existed before arrival of Christianity in Europe ) conquered all the old Greek kingdoms that existed after death of the Greek conqueror Alexander the Great. But Romans followed the ancient Greek religion . They considered the Greek art, philosophy etc as their own and later made their own great contributions .
Here we have to note a most important point. No doubt,the ancient Greek art and philosophy were vast and thrilling . The Greeks created the ideas of urbanization, democratic ideas, militarist philosophy etc earlier than the Romans. But the Roman rulers ( who historians say had their origins in tough Italian farming communities) further improved upon the Greek ideas and transformed small Italian republic into a huge Italy-wide kingdom and later Europe-wide military dominated empire. In a way we can say that if Greek ideas were like scale models the roman achievements were like huge concrete structures on the ground with foundations based on Greek models.(There exist ruins of many magnificent Greek buildings of huge size with engineering and artistic perfection and as majestic as those of later Roman empire) .
The Romans established the biggest empire in Europe and became inspirers for later western kingdoms and empires in matters of administration and in establishing democratic governments. So before learning about medieval history of Britain we may know about history of ancient Greece and about history of the ancient and medieval Roman empires.
ANCIENT GREECE
Greek civilization was an ancient European civilization of the Mediterranean region. It existed from 9th centuries BC to 6th century AD and was spread in the Greek peninsula and the hundreds of islands nearby. Ancient Greece was not a single country but a big group of “city- states” i.e. each city considering itself as a separate kingdom. The “city –states” were either in the islands or in the deep isolated valleys in mainland Greece . All city states contained the same Greek people, speaking same language and following same customs and culture. Such Greek city states began to form from 8th century BC. The geography of Greece, where communities were boxed in mountainous valleys or in islands dictated the development of a system of independent city-states.
80% of Greece is said to be very mountainous with rough mountains with deep valleys . It has about 1200 big islands and a few thousand tiny islets. About 200 islands were inhabited since ancient times. It is a beautiful land with blue skies and blue sea and a pleasant climate.
Some of the city states are –Athens(famous for its ideas of democracy) and Sparta(famous for its militarist philosophy , military training to youth and military style government).Politically, in the ancient times the city state of Athens with its liberal democratic ideas and ideas of individual freedom dominated Greece. Later there was rise of Sparta during 4th century BC . In Athenian society there were great writers and sublime philosophers whose works are read with great enjoyment and also with awe and respect even today by modern readers. There were philosophers like Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle. Most were Athenian . Religion was a central part of ancient Greek life. The Greeks were polytheistic, worshipping many gods.
Sparta was an important and powerful state that followed and propagated a very strict militaristic view of life . In the later Roman Empire such a militarist view was implemented on a Europe-wide scale. There were other city states. Corinth(famed for commerce and navigation),Thebes(a military power),Delphi(a big religious state),Syracuse( another powerful city state). It is wonderful to note that ancient Greece consisted of several hundred such independent city-states! There is no such situation in other parts of world. Every city was a separate kingdom and treated itself as a separate country fiercely defending its independence!
Unification of Greece was never contemplated in the ancient times. However, the Greeks greatly valued their common culture. The Olympic games were an ancient Greek idea of eighth century BC .The games were conducted every four years to instill the idea of oneness of all Greeks. European games and international games reminding of ancient Olympic games were started again in modern Athens in 1896!
HISTORY OF GREEK CITY STATES
Now again back to ancient Greek history.At times of Persian wars even inimical city states united but after the wars the allies quickly returned to infighting. During the period 800BC to 500 BC the city states formed several military alliances and quarreled for supremacy . First the Dalian League led by Athens dominated . There was a Spartan alliance led by states with a strict militarist thinking. In some of the wars with the adjacent Persian Empire the Athenian league led in some wars and the Sparta league led in some . In some cities tyrants ruled. Some cities even took the help of Persia to defeat other city states.
Athens surprisingly recognized ,even by 7th century BC, the right of all citizens to participate in creating a parliament –type assembly to rule the city statE. History says that there was for a century or more much political tension between the poor and the elites in Athens. In such prevailing situation of tension the republican philosophy might have evolved after much discussion and deliberation among statesmen and philosophers. In Sparta, in a different way, a militarist dictatorial political system was evolved in 8th and 7th centuries. Sparta subjugated the neighboring city states . There were some other such minor military alliances . In two wars with Persian empire there was alliance between Athens and Sparta and Persians were defeated. But later there were endless quarrels for decades between Sparta and Athens . This period of Greek history is called “Archaic PerioD”.
The powerful king Philip of Macedon observed the disunity among the city states. He at last got an idea of subjugating the city states and establishing a Greek country and Greek empire. He conquered many city-states and established the Macedonian empire. He was murdered in 336 BC. His son Alexander the Great was a great conqueror . He fought wars against Macedon's enemies and then conquered many kingdom in western Asia. He defeated Persia and proclaimed himself king of Asia. He died in 323 BC. After his death the empire disintegrated . Many of Alexander's generals became kings and ruled the several kingdoms independently . Thus there were many Greek kingdoms following the ancient Greek culture . It is a very long period of about 300 years . This period of flourishing of greek kingdoms in parts of Europe and Asia is called by historians as Hellenistic period. At the end of this period all the Greek kingdoms were conquered and annexed by the mighty Roman Empire. The Roman Emperor Augustus made the entire Greek peninsula a Roman provice in 27 BC.
But we should remember that Romans followed mostly the Greek religion and culture . Greek language was spoken by most people all over the Roman empire while Latin was the language of the royals and military in Rome. Greek was a highly developed language spoken and was the language of scholars. After the Greek kingdoms were conquered by the Roman empire , Rome became a centre of Greek literature. Romans greatly revered the ancient Greek culture, literature and philosophy as their very own.
Ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day-- in the areas of art, sculpture and architecture , in the area of literature and philosophy and also in public administration, urban planning, etc. The method of scientific reasoning existing in Greek philosophy influenced the modern ideas of scientific research . The most famous names in Greek philosophy are Socrates and his disciple Plato and Aristotle. Famous names in science and mathematics are Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes etc . Ancient Greek astronomers using their mathematical and abstract reasoning proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis and that Earth and planets rotate around the Sun. They prepared the first star catalogues. Hippocrates is respected today as a great figure in the history of medicine. He declared medical science as a separate profession. The poetic works of the ancient Greek poet and philosopher Homer, the most beautiful mythologies of Illiad and the Odyssey , are both very artistic and philosophic. The Homeric tales are also enjoyed as part of children’s literature all over the world.
“The isles of Greece! the isles of Greece!
Where burning Sappho loved and sung,
Where grew the arts of war and peace,
Where Delos rose, and Phoebus sprung!
Eternal summer gilds them yet,
But all, except their sun, is set”.
--Lord Byron(1819)
ROMAN EMPIRE
(1) ROMAN REPUBLIC
(A) Roman Empire controlled the Mediterranean and much of Western Europe, Western Asia and North Africa during the ancient times and medieval ages . Rome was capital of the empire. Roman Republic was founded in the 6th century BC. The republic was a combination of republican democracy, aristocratic rule and military administration. It can be roughly described as an association of (a)central administration in the capital city of Rome,(b) conquered city-states which accepted to live as self-ruled towns under Rome’s overall control and ( c ) conquered countries which became provinces in Roman Empire and were ruled by retired senior Roman military generals (the equestrians).
The central administration consisted of (a) several “Assemblies” which were the main law- making bodies but each concerned with a different category of duties and (b) a powerful advisory body called Senate consisting of 300 senators who were retired rich magistrates or military officers all elected for life.
The advice of Senate was always followed and implemented as the senators were all experienced administrators --either retired civilian magistrates or military generals (the equestrians). The “Assemblies” consisted of elected representatives who had huge powers to make laws but were subject to following advice of senate. The permanent governors sent to administer provinces were also senior magistrates with military experience who seved at least a few years in Rome.
We can see that the Roman Republic was ruled by a well–organized administrative structure. It gave opportunities to eligible citizens to participate in administration. Very efficient well organized professional army was ready to manage any trouble spots.
The central administration could effectively control (1)conquered city-states (2) conquered kingdoms ( provinces) which had to be governed very firmly (3)carry out overall administration of empire with the help of Assemblies containing elected representatives and Senate consisting of experienced retired magistrates and retired military commanders
(2) HISTORY OF ROMAN REPUBLIC
Roman central administration was very powerful and by 100 BC, the Republic controlled most of the the Mediterranean region with the hep of powerful army .During the 1st century there were civil wars and political and military upheavals. Julius Caesar a powerful Roman general who subdued all disturbances declared himself in 44 BC as permanent dictator and ruler of the Republic. But some independent- minded senators of the Republic strongly objected and when he refused they got him assassinated . Mark Antony (a Roman general friendly to Julius Ceaser)and Octavian, Caesar's adopted son became joint rulers . In course of time differences arose between the two and the Empire was divided between the two. There was war between them. Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony in 31 bc. Four years later in 27 BC, the Roman Senate granted Octavian unlimited military power and the new title of Augustus. He was accepted as the first Roman Emperor. Emperor Octavian ruled for 40-years. He established a royal dynasty. Upon his death, Tiberius his adopted son succeed as the new emperor. The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule were a period of stability in the Roman Empire. There was peace and economic prosperity . Uprisings in the provinces were put down swiftly.
(3) THE DIFFERENT EMPERORS
(a) Emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138) strengthened the empire and also implemented many big building projects throughout the provinces. He made Jerusalem a Roman colony . It was a time when the religion of Lord Jesus Christ was not yet followed by the Roman people and Roman kings. There were frequent disturbances between the Roman army and the Jewish people. In the early times of Christianity ,particularly during first two or three centuries of Christian era , the Roman emperors and Roman military officers and other administrators were much opposed to Christianity treating it as a non-European subversive movement. But it was becoming popular even among some Greeks and Romans because of its sublime message of love and sacrifice.
However entire Italian and Greek society right from Emperor and nobles to common people were accustomed only to the ancient social and religious practices of Roman and Greek culture coming down since centuries. The entire economic and social structure was based on the old Roman and Greek customs . They could not shift to new Christian procedures . In course of time common people , intellectuals and even some people of noble and rich classes appreciated the message of sublime love and spirituality in religion of Lord Jesus Christ.Some emperors were very cruel and harsh towards Christianity in the beginning but from fourth century AD onwards all sections of people became friendly towards Christianity as the emperors declared it as the state religion.
(b) Emperor Diocletian ruled in the in the 3rd century (284 AD-305 AD). The Roman Empire faced civil war and also barbarian invasions from Germanic tribes . The empire was quite ungovernable . Therefore emperor Diocletian set up two different capitals ---one in Rome for western part of empire and one in the Greek eastern part in the city of Byzantium .The western part of the empire used Latin language and the eastern part used the Greek language. Diocletian persecuted Christians treating Christianity as a subversive movement and a threat to the empire.
( c ) Emperor Constantine ruled during the period 306 AD to 337 AD. Though his strong rule ensured that the entire Roman Empire remained united ,the empire being too vast was proving ungovernable . Emperor Constantine made Byzantium (renamed Constantinople) as the capitol for entire empire. Being personally attracted by the noble message of Christianity he converted to Christianity
( d ) Emperor Theodosius One (379-375) ruled the eastern part but when some rebels tried to take over the west from the legitimate king he defeated the rebels and ruled over both parts until his death. He was a very religious person and devout Christian and made Christianity the state religion of entire roman empire. After his death his two sons became emperors for the eastern and western empires.
The Easrern Roman empire,the Byzantine empire became very powerful and existed for another 1000 years. It flourished as a great greek Christian military power and acted as a bridge between eastern and western Europe in cultural and military matters. It became center of Eastern Orthodox Church. The eastern empire also preserved ancient Greek knowledge and philosophy. Emperor Justinian (527 AD-565AD) was a famed east roman emperor and a great conqueror. He fought wars with barbarian invaders and protected the empire. He also fought many wars with the Persian emperors. He was famous for getting standard legal codes(Justinian Codes) prepared for the Byzantine empire. He was devout Christian.
The Byzantine empire(the eastern empire) was ruled by many strong emperors who upheld religion and culture and art and literature and flourished for over a 1000 years more. Subsequently there were frequent wars with Arab and Ottoman invaders. The empire ended nly in 1453 when Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople.
CONCLUSION
Roman institutions and Roman culture had a lasting influence on the development of language, religion, art, architecture, literature, philosophy, law, and political organization in all areas it ruled . Latin language evolved into languages like Italian,French ,spanish and portugese. The empire's adoption of Christianity resulted in the creation of powerful medieval Christian society in Europe.
Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the European Renaissance movement and inspired architectural styles in many countries in the world. The ancient Greek and Roman mathematical, astronomical and scientific discoveries form basis for some of modern scientific theories. Rome’s republican institutions have influenced the writing of constitution of United States and constitutions of many ountries of modern world.
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